Uclein is an important limitation of our previous studies that have

Uclein is an important limitation of our previous studies that have explored a-synuclein oligomers as a potential biomarker for PD. However, this research area is prone to speculation because a more recent study has challenged the a-synuclein tetramer hypothesis by demonstrating that unstructured monomers of a-synuclein were the predominant form in native order 256373-96-3 conditions [46]. The identification of specific biomarkers for PD in peripheral blood plasma has advantages over the use of CSF biomarkers since obtaining plasma for such tests is far less invasive than obtaining CSF. On the other hand, plasma is a biochemically and physiologically more complex tissue to work with, as demonstrated in studies measuring Ab42 protein levels in plasma as a biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease [47]. To this extent, a major limitation of plasma is that physiological modifiers of the levels of proteins like a-synuclein in plasma, such as environmental factors, pharmacotherapy, and circadian fluctuations in CSF and plasma exchange, are yet to be fully elucidated. Another aspect to be considered is that red blood cells contain a-synuclein. Barbour and colleagues suggested that a-synuclein levels in plasma and even in CSF may be artificially elevated by contamination with intact or lysed red blood cells due to their abundance and fragility [15,30]. We should be aware of this putative bias and take it into consideration in any future studies to improve the outcome of this type of analysis. Larger scale studies are also needed to determine whether asynuclein levels can be accurately measured in plasma and whether PD patients can be reliably distinguished from patients with a-synucleinopathies distinct from that of PD, and from healthy individuals. In spite of the unresolved issues surrounding the analytical tests for PD biomarkers, our results suggest that the accurate measurement of a-synuclein levels in plasma, if combined with other biomarkers (i.e. analytes from the proteome, transcriptome, metabolome, as well as neuroimaging, etc), could potentially serve as a valuable tool for improving the diagnostic accuracy of PD.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: AG AB JR JFM AA ALM OMAE. Performed the experiments: AG MC SV MMQ FA. Analyzed the data: AG ALM OMAE. Wrote the paper: AG ALM OMAE.Levels of a-Synuclein in PD Blood
Caenorhabditis elegans is an extremely versatile and appropriate animal model for mimicking and recapitulating in vivo the key molecular mechanisms underlying the gene-and tissue-specific protein misfolding and toxicity related to the human pathogenesis [1]. Dimethylenastron Despite the evolutionary distance from vertebrates, human proteins substantially maintain their structure and function when they are expressed in C. elegans [1]. Many variant proteins associated to human diseases cause a pathological phenotype in worms and this cross-species translation greatly facilitates the study of human diseases in this simple organism. This is particularly true for “gain of function diseases”, including Alzheimer, Parkinson and Huntington diseases, caused by self-aggregation of specific peptides [2?]. Transgenic worms expressing human diseaserelevant proteins and peptides also represented a rapid and highly informative system for the screening of putative therapeutic medications at the early stages of drug development with particular regard to aging-related diseases [5]. Alavez et al. [6]have recently shown that C. elegans is an excellent biological m.Uclein is an important limitation of our previous studies that have explored a-synuclein oligomers as a potential biomarker for PD. However, this research area is prone to speculation because a more recent study has challenged the a-synuclein tetramer hypothesis by demonstrating that unstructured monomers of a-synuclein were the predominant form in native conditions [46]. The identification of specific biomarkers for PD in peripheral blood plasma has advantages over the use of CSF biomarkers since obtaining plasma for such tests is far less invasive than obtaining CSF. On the other hand, plasma is a biochemically and physiologically more complex tissue to work with, as demonstrated in studies measuring Ab42 protein levels in plasma as a biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease [47]. To this extent, a major limitation of plasma is that physiological modifiers of the levels of proteins like a-synuclein in plasma, such as environmental factors, pharmacotherapy, and circadian fluctuations in CSF and plasma exchange, are yet to be fully elucidated. Another aspect to be considered is that red blood cells contain a-synuclein. Barbour and colleagues suggested that a-synuclein levels in plasma and even in CSF may be artificially elevated by contamination with intact or lysed red blood cells due to their abundance and fragility [15,30]. We should be aware of this putative bias and take it into consideration in any future studies to improve the outcome of this type of analysis. Larger scale studies are also needed to determine whether asynuclein levels can be accurately measured in plasma and whether PD patients can be reliably distinguished from patients with a-synucleinopathies distinct from that of PD, and from healthy individuals. In spite of the unresolved issues surrounding the analytical tests for PD biomarkers, our results suggest that the accurate measurement of a-synuclein levels in plasma, if combined with other biomarkers (i.e. analytes from the proteome, transcriptome, metabolome, as well as neuroimaging, etc), could potentially serve as a valuable tool for improving the diagnostic accuracy of PD.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: AG AB JR JFM AA ALM OMAE. Performed the experiments: AG MC SV MMQ FA. Analyzed the data: AG ALM OMAE. Wrote the paper: AG ALM OMAE.Levels of a-Synuclein in PD Blood
Caenorhabditis elegans is an extremely versatile and appropriate animal model for mimicking and recapitulating in vivo the key molecular mechanisms underlying the gene-and tissue-specific protein misfolding and toxicity related to the human pathogenesis [1]. Despite the evolutionary distance from vertebrates, human proteins substantially maintain their structure and function when they are expressed in C. elegans [1]. Many variant proteins associated to human diseases cause a pathological phenotype in worms and this cross-species translation greatly facilitates the study of human diseases in this simple organism. This is particularly true for “gain of function diseases”, including Alzheimer, Parkinson and Huntington diseases, caused by self-aggregation of specific peptides [2?]. Transgenic worms expressing human diseaserelevant proteins and peptides also represented a rapid and highly informative system for the screening of putative therapeutic medications at the early stages of drug development with particular regard to aging-related diseases [5]. Alavez et al. [6]have recently shown that C. elegans is an excellent biological m.